Cambio climático II: causas de este calentamiento

Lecturas 11793     En un anterior artículo trataba las evidencias científicas (y remarco científicas y sometidas a revisión por pares y publicadas en revistas indexadas, sometidas al método de las ciencias empíricas) del calentamiento global. En este trato sobre las causas a las cuales achacar este calentamiento global. Antes de nada hay que entender porqué un planeta se calienta en el largo plazo. Un planeta (o cualquier objeto) emite una radiación que es llamada de cuerpo negro (en realidad de “cuerpo gris”) que es proporcional a la temperatura. A mayor temperatura esté la atmósfera y la superficie del planeta mayor radiación electromagnética (casi toda en el rango de los infrarojos) emitirá. En equilibrio el planeta emitirá la misma cantidad de energía que la que recibe. En este caso o bien del interior del propio planeta (generálmente mediante vulcanismo o convección de material) o bien por la radiación exterior que recibe. En el caso de la tierra la energía volcánica no es relevante para el cálculo térmico. Es verdad que un volcán cuando eyecta material libera grandes cantidades de energía térmica a la atmósfera y a la superficie del planeta, pero la cantidad de energía es muy pequeña en comparación con la radiación solar o la emisión de radiación de la propia tierra (considerando además, que un planeta en equilibrio lo que hace ante un aumento puntual de temperatura es retornar a la temperatura de equilibrio ya que la radiación de cuerpo negro aumenta, mientras que la radiación recibida sigue siendo la misma y en pocas semanas sino en pocos días para cualquier erupción volcánica que se haya producido en la historia se hubiera compensado el leve exceso de energía térmica). De hecho, los gases emitidos por el volcán, y las partículas en suspensión provocan más bien un enfriamiento puntual de la temperatura global al obstruir el paso de la luz solar. Por tanto el vulcanismo y la actividad geológica tienen un efecto en como afectan a la radiación solar recibida para explicar el cambio climático, más que por la liberación directa de energía. Si nos centramos en la radiación solar, puede haber un incremento de esta (por una mayor actividad solar) o por una reducción del albedo planetario. El albedo planetario es el porcentaje de radiación que refleja un planeta, y es lo que nos permite ver a Venus radiante en las primeras horas de la noche. El albedo depende de varios factores y más en un planeta como la tierra. Los bosques son superficies oscuras que absorven la radiación mucho mejor que los cultivos o los desiertos, las nubes incrementan la radiación reflejada, igual que los casquetes glaciares, las plataformas marinas incrementan el albedo ya que reflejan la radiación mejor que el oceano, etc.. Así que deberíamos mirar que efecto ha tenido un posible incremento de la radiación solar o de disminución del albedo terrestre en el calentamiento global. Hay otros mecanismos que afectan al balance energético terrestre. Cualquier mecanismo que reduzca la radiación de cuerpo negro del planeta, reflejando parte de esa radiación de vuelta a la superficie del planeta, afecta al balance energético del planeta, si ha habido variaciones en las concentraciones de los gases que reflejan la radiación en el rango del infrarojo o en la composición de las nubes que haga incrementar su retorno a la tierra de parte de esa radiación, deberían ser posibles candidatos para el calentamiento global. Algunos de estos candidatos ya han afectado en la historia geológica reciente y algunos pueden responder a ciclos naturales, por tanto deberíamos mirar que proporción de esos candidatos corresponden a la actividad humana para determinar el efecto de esta en el cambio climático. Así que pondremos en la mesa todos los posibles causantes y su efecto neto en la radiación emitida o en la radiación recibida para poder ver que parte de “culpa” se llevan cada uno y qué parte del pastel del cambio climático está en nuestra actividad. Los areosoles: Los aerosoles son partículas finas en suspensión, su variación reciente corresponden a la actividad humana y ocasionálmente al vulcanismo (aunque el efecto a largo plazo corresponde a la actividad humana) y a los incendios forestales. Su efecto es muy ambiguo, el hollín absorve la luz solar y calienta la atmósfera, pero otros aerosoles como los sulfatos reflejan la luz solar. Una mayor concentración de aerosoles alteran las propiedades de las nubes, aunque estas ayudan a reflejar de vuelta una parte de la radiación térmica (como cualquier persona de campo sabe, al conocer que una noche rasa es una noche que hará más frío), las nubes también incrementan el albedo terrestre. Además los aerosoles hacen que las nubes sean más reflectantes y que duren más. Por tanto su efecto total como formador de nubes es disminuir la temperatura terrestre. Se calcula que el hollín tiene un efecto incrementador de la radiación absorvida de entre 0,7 y 0,8 watts /m^2 y que en cambio los aerosoles reflectantes disminuyen la radiación recivida en 1,4 watts/m^2, la variación producida por los cambios en las nubes producidos por los aerosoles se calcula que es de 1 watt/m^2 en reducir la radiación recibida. Cambios en la superficie planetaria: Los cambios en el albedo terrestre al alterar la cobertura vegetal del planeta se calculan que son de una reducción de un par de décimas de watts/m^2. En el momento en que los casquetes glaciares o las plataformas de hielo oceánicas comiencen a deshacerse a un ritmo más alto hemos de esperar que el efecto sea el de un incremento de la radiación absorvida y una disminución radical del albedo terrestre. Un cambio en la superficie cubierta por los glaciares y plataformas es tan radical que conjúntamente con los cambios en las concentraciones de gases invernadero son esenciales para explicar los cambios radicales de tipo de clima entre períodos glaciares e interglaciares. Con lo cuál si el cambio climático sigue en la misma dirección que la actual el deshielo de grandes superficies cubiertas por plataformas y casquetes provocará un efecto de aceleración de este incremento de temperaturas. Cambios en la radiación solar: Ha habido un incremento en los últimos 150 años de la actividad solar, el sol tiene también sus ciclos y una tendencia general ha incrementar su actividad. La tendencia general es irelevante para cualquier cambio climático actual o en perspectiva de millones de años, ya que esos cambios se producen en períodos de miles de millones de años. Influye mucho más las fluctuaciones temporales, los pequeños ciclos de 12 años de actividad solar y otros que duran uno o dos siglos. Es cierto que ha habido un incremento de la actividad solar y que durante la década de los 90 por parte de algunos científicos se le quiso atribuir el incremento de temperatura observado. Después de varios artículos en las revistas indexadas se llegó a la conclusión que el efecto no era el que los primeros autores (Solanki, Soon, Baliunas) habían atribuido a inicio de esa década de variable explicativa de hasta el 80% del calentamiento global. A lo sumo hoy en día, en Science o en Nature le atribuye un efecto positivo de la radiación recibida de unas décimas de watts por metro cuadarado. Un efecto que no explicaría más que el 20% en el mejor de los casos del incremento de temperatura terrestre. Otra cuestión importante es que esta variación que ha habido no va a continuar indefinídamente, a diferencia de otras variables como los gases invernadero o los cambios en el albedo terrestre, ya que del actual ciclo solar saldremos en el plazo de unas pocas décadas. Cambio en las concentraciones de gases invernadero: Los gases invernadero, no solo el CO2. El CH4, los halocarburos, el óxido nitroso y el ozono troposférico incrementan la radiación terrestre reflejada de nuevo a su superficie, el incremento de estos gases en las últimas décadas significa una perturbación que llega a casi 3 watts por metro cuadrado, en la radiación devuelta nuévamente al planeta. El incremento en las concentraciones de estos gases tiene una explicación prácticamente del 90% en su origen antropogénico, junto a la variación de los aerosoles, y la cobertura vegetal corresponde cláramente al paquete de cambio climático de origen antropogénico. Es decir, las principales, en dimensión, afectaciones a la radiación recibida y reflejada son dos, ambas de origen antropogénico y una con un efecto mayoritariamente negativo (los aerosoles) y otra con un efecto mayor y positivo en el incremento de la temperatura (los gases invernadero). Es decir, el cambio climático se centra en una causa que tiene grandes posibilidades de tener un origen antropogénico. En total, tenemos un balance energético de un incremento total de 1,6± 1 watt/m^2, producido por las variaciones de estos efectos, tal y como recoge Hansen en American Science en el 2004. Esta variación estimada que coincide con los datos empíricos que se han recogido y que hacen que los modelos que contemplan el efecto de la actividad humana en el clima sean los más cercanos a la realidad que los que símplemente le quieren achacar un origen solar o natural. En el próximo artículo trataré sobre como ha ido variando la concentración de los gases invernadero a lo largo de la paleohistoria climática y de la historia de la humanidad y como podemos calcular el efecto que tiene la actividad industrial y agrícola humana y también que parte de variación en la concentración de estos gases (en especial CO2 y CH4) es achacable a motivos naturales, que tendencias siguen y como puede considerarse que el mar, o los bosques pueden llegar a absorver esos excedentes. Comentarios de los usuarios (10) Añade tu comentario Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 14:21, 1. Emilio (Thai) Cientificos (entre ellos 42 premios nóbel) que creen que NO HAY CALENTAMIENTO GLOBAL INDUCIDO:    Bruce N. Ames, Director, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Center, Berkeley- Biochemistry-U.S.A.     * Phillip W. Anderson, Nobel Prize (Physics), Princeton University-Physics- U.S.A.     * Christian B. Anfinsen, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), John Hopkins University- Baltimore-Biology- U.S.A.     Henri Atlan, Professor, Head of Nuclear Medicine Department, Hotel Dieu, Paris-Nuclear Medicine-France     * Julius Axelrod, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Lab. Of Cell Biology Nat. Institute of Mental Health-Cell Biology-U.S.A.     Aden Bauleiu-Inserm, Ac. of Sciences, France, National Institute of Sciences, U.S.A. Lasker Prize-Endocrinology- France     * Baruj Benacerraf, Nobel Prize (Medicine), National Medal of Science, President, Dana-Farber, Inc.-Cancerology- U.S.A.     * Hans Albrecht Bethe, Nobel Prize (Physics), Emeritus Professor, Cornell University-Ithaca- NY-Nuclear Physics-U.S.A.     *Sir James W. Black, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor Of Analytical Pharmacology King's College, London- Pharmacology-Grande- Bretagne     * Nicholas Bloembergen, Nobel Prize (Physics), Harvard University-Physics- U.S.A.     Sir Hermann Bondi, Emeritus Professor Of Mathematics King's College University Master of Churchill College Cambridge- Mathematics-Grande- Bretagne     * Norman E, Borlaug, Nobel Prize (Peace), Sc. Consult CAMWOOD, Mexico Pdt. Sasakawa African Assoc.-Agriculture- U.S.A.     Pierre Bourdieu, College de France-Sociology- France     * Adolph Butenandt, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), Hon. Pres. Max-Planck Institute-Chemistry- Allemagne     * Thomas R. Cech, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), University of Colorado-Chemistry- U.S.A.     Carlos Chagas, Academia Pontificia, WIS-Medicine-Bresil     * Owen Chamberlain, Professor, Nobel Prize (Physics), Emeritus Professor, University Of California-Berkeley- U.S.A.     * Stanley Cohen, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Distinguished Professor, Department of Biochem., Vanderbilt University- Biochemistry-U.S.A.     *Sir John Warcup Cornforth, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), School of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Brighton-Chemistry- Grande-Bretagne     * Jean Dausset, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Ac. of Sciences, France, Pres. U.M.S.E., W.I.S., Paris-Immunology- France     * Gerald Debreu, Nobel Prize (Economy), Emeritus Professor of Economics and Mathematics, University Of California-Economy- U.S.A.     * Johan Deisenhofer, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), University of Texas, Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas-Biochemistry- U.S.A.     Sir Richard Doll, Emeritus Professor Of Medicine, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford-Epidemiology- Grande-Bretagne     * Christian de Duve, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Biology-Belgique     * Manfred Eigen, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), President of Max Plank Institute, Gottingen-Chemistry- Allemagne     * Richard R. Ernst, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich-Chemistry- Suisse     * Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Nobel Prize (Physics), Ac. of Sciences, Professor, College de France, Paris-Physics-France     * Ivar Giaever, Nobel Prize (Physics), Institute Professor, R.P.I.-Physics- U.S.A.     * Donald A. Glaser, Nobel Prize (Physics), Professor of Physics, University of California-Physics- U.S.A.     Francois Gros, Professor, College de France, Ac of Sciences, France, Vice President of WIS, Paris - Biology of development-France     * Roger Guillemin, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Whittier Institute, La Jolla-Medicine- U.S.A.     * Herbert A. Hauptman, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), Pres. Med. Found. of Buffalo, Professor of Biophysics Sc-Biophysics-U.S.A.     Harald zur Hausen, Professor, Dr., Director of German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg- Cancerology- Allemagne     Mrs. Francoise Heritier-Auge, Professor, College de France, Pres Cons Nat. Sida Dir, Ehess-Anthropology- France     * Dudley R. 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Mott, Nobel Prize Winner (Physics), Emeritus Professor, Cambridge University, Physics-Grande- Bretagne     * Joseph Murray, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor, Dr Surgery, Harvard Med School-Cell Biology-U.S.A.     * Daniel Nathans, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor, John Hopkins Un, School of Medicine, Baltimore-Molecular Genetics-U.S.A.     Daniel W. Nebert, Professor, Director, Center for Environmental Genetics, University of Cincinnati, Genetics-U.S.A.     * Louis Neel, Nobel Prize (Physics), Physics-France     * Erwin Neher, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Doctor, Director, Max-Planck Institute, Biophysics, Goettingen- Biophysics-Allemagne     * Marshall W. Nirenberg, Nobel Prize (Medicine), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda-Medicine- U.S.A.     * George E. 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Prochiantz, Pr, Director of Research CNRS, Ecole Normale Suprieure, Paris, W.I.S.-Pharmacology- France     Ichtiaque Rasool, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena-Physics- France     * Tadeus Reichstein, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor Emeritus, Org Chemistry, University of Basel-Organic Chemistry-Suisse     * Heinrich Rohrer, Nobel Prize (Physics), IBM Research Laboratory, Physics-Suisse     * Bert Sakmann, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor, Max-Planck Inst for Med. Forschung, Heidelberg-Cell Biology-Allemange     * Abdus Salam, Nobel Prize (Physics), International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Italie     Jonas Salk, Distinguished Pr., Dr , International Health Sciences-Biology-USA     Evry Schatzman, Professor, Ac of Sciences-France- Astrophysics-France     * Arthur L. Schawlow, Nobel Prize (Physics), Stanford University-Physics- U.S.A.     G. Schettler, Professor, Director, Former President, Academy of Sciences, Heidelberg- Cardiology-Allemagne     Elie A. Shneour, Professor, Director, Biosystems Research Institute, San Diego, California-U.S.A.     * Kai Siegbahn, Nobel Prize (Physics), Physics-Suede     S. Fred Singer, Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, Director of the Washington S.E.P.P, EnvironmentalScience s-U.S.A.     * Richard Laurence Millington Synge, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), Biochemistry-Grande- Bretagne     GP Talwar, Professor Emeritus, Nat Inst of Immunology, Ac of Sciences, India, W.I.S.-Immunology- Inde     * Jan Tinbergen, Nobel Prize (Economy), Economy-Pays-Bas     *Lord Alexander Todd, Nobel Prize (Chemistry), Chemistry-Grande- Bretagne     Alvin Toffler, Author-Futurist- Futurology-U.S.A.     * Charles H. Townes, Nobel Prize (Physics), W.I.S. Professor Emeritus, Physics, University of California, Berkeley-Physics- U.S.A.     Ren Truhaut, Professor, Pharmacology Facult des Sciences, Pharmaceutiques, Paris-Toxicology- France     *Sir John R. Vane , Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor, Chairman of William Harvey Research Institute, London- Endocrinology- Grande-Bretagne     * Harold E. Varmus, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor of Microbiology, University of California, San Francisco- Microbiology-U.S.A.     * Thomas Huckle Weller, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor Emeritus, Harvard-Medicine- U.S.A.     * Elie Wiesel, Nobel Prize (Peace), University of Boston Literature-U.S.A.     * Torsten N. Wiesel, Nobel Prize (Medicine), Professor, Lab of Neurobiology, Rockefeller University of New York, Neurobiology-U.S.A.     * Robert W. Wilson, Nobel Prize (Physics), Head, Radio Physics Res Department, AT&T Bell Laboratories- Physics-U.S.A.     David G. Aubrey, Ph.D., Senior Scientist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute    Nathaniel B. Guttman, Ph.D., Research Physical Scientist, National Climatic Data Center      Hugh W. 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Anderson,Professor, Texas A&M University  Dr. Robert Balling, Professor and Director of the Office of Climatology, Arizona State University; more than 80 research articles published in scientific journals; author of The Heated Debate: Greenhouse Predictions vs. Climate Reality (1992); coauthor, Interactions of Desertifications and Climate, a report for the UN Environmental Program and the World Meteorological Organization; contributor/ reviewer, IPCC.  Dr. Jack Barrett, Imperial College, London, UK  Dr. Warren Berning, atmospheric physicist, New Mexico State University  Dr. Jiri Blumel, Institute Sozialokon. Forschg. Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic  Bruce Boe, atmospheric scientist and Director of the North Dakota Atmospheric Resources Board; member, American Meteorological Society; former chairman, AMS Committee on Planned and Inadvertent Weather Modification.   Dr. C.J.F. Böttcher, Chairman of the Board, The Global Institute for the Study of Natural Resources, The Hague, The Netherlands; Professor Emeritus of physical chemistry, Leiden University; past President of the Science Policy Council of The Netherlands; former member, Scientific Council for Government Policy; former head of the Netherlands Delegation to the OECD Committee for Science and Technology; author, The Science and Fiction of the Greenhouse Effect and Carbon Dioxide; founding member of The Club of Rome.  Dr. Arthur Bourne, Professor, University of London, UK  Larry H. Brace, physicist, former director of the Planetary Atmospheres Branch, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; recipient NASA Medal for Exceptional Scientific Achievement.  Dr. Norman M.D. Brown, FRSC, Professor, University of Ulster.  Dr. R.A.D. Byron-Scott, meteorologist, formerly senior lecturer in meteorology, Flinders Institute for Atmospheric and Marine Science, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia  Dr. Joseph Cain, Professor of planetary physics and geophysics, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Institute, Florida State University; elected Fellow, American Geophysical Union; formerly with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (scientific satellites) and the U.S. Geological Survey.  Dr. Gabriel T. Csanady, meteorologist, Eminent Professor, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia.  Robert Cunningham, consulting meteorologist, Fellow, American Meteorological Society  Dr. Fred W. Decker, Professor of meteorology, Oregon State University, Corvalis, Oregon; elected Fellow, AAAS; member, RMS, NWA, AWA, AMS.  Lee W. Eddington, meteorologist, Naval Air Warfare Center  Dr. Hugh Ellsaesser, atmospheric scientist, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (1963-1986); Participating Guest Scientist, Lawrence Livermore Natl. Lab. (1986-1996), more than 40 refereed research papers and major reports in the scientific literature.  Dr. John Emsley, Imperial College, London, UK  Dr. Otto Franzle, Professor, University of Kiel, Germany  Dr. C.R. de Freitas, climate scientist, University of Auckland, New Zealand, Editor of the international journal Climate Research  Dr. John E. Gaynor, Senior Meteorologist, Environmental Technology Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, Colorado  Dr. Tor Ragnar Gerholm, Professor Emeritus of Physics, University of Stockholm, member of Nobel Prize selection committee for physics; member, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences, author of several books on science and technology.  Dr. Gerhard Gerlich, Professor, Technical University of Braunschweig.  Dr. Thomas Gold, Professor of astrophysics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York  Dr. H.G. Goodell, Professor, University of Virginia, Charlottesville  James D. Goodridge, climatologist, formerly with California Dept. of Water Resources.  Dr. Adrian Gordon, meteorologist, University of South Australia.  Prof. Dr. Eckhard Grimmel, Professor, University Hamburg, Germany.  Dr. Nathaniel B. Guttman, Research Physical Scientist, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, North Carolina; former Professor of atmospheric sciences/ climatology; former Chairman, AMS Committee on Applied Climatology.  Dr. Paul Handler, Professor of chemistry, University of Illinois.  Dr. Vern Harnapp, Professor, University of Akron, Ohio  Dr. Howard C. Hayden, Professor of physics, University of Connecticut  Dr. Michael J. Higatsberger, Professor and former Director, Institute for Experimental Physics, University of Vienna, Austria; former Director, Seibersdorf Research Center of the Austrian Atomic Energy Agency; former President, Austrian Physical Society.  Dr. Austin W. Hogan, meteorologist, co-editor of the journal Atmospheric Research.  Dr. William Hubbard, Professor, University of Arizona, Dept. of Planetary Sciences; elected Fellow of the American Geophysical Union.  Dr. Heinz Hug, lecturer, Wiesbaden, Germany  Dr. Zbigniew Jaworski, University of Warsaw, Poland  Dr. Kelvin Kemm, nuclear physicist, Director, Technology Strategy Consultants, Pretoria, South Africa; columnist, Engineering News; author, Techtrack: A Winding Path of South African Development.  Dr. Robert L. Kovach, Professor of geophysics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California  Dr. David R. Legates, Professor of meteorology, University of Oklahoma  Dr. Heinz H. Lettau, geophysicist, Increase A. Lapham Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin  Dr. Henry R. Linden, Max McGraw Professor of Energy and Power Engineering and Management, Director, Energy and Power Center, Illinois Institute of Technology; elected Fellow, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; former member, Energy Engineering Board of the National Research Council; member, Green Technology Committee, National Academy of Engineering.  Dr. Richard S. Lindzen, Sloane Professor of Meteorology, Center for Meteorology and Physical Meteorology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.  Dr. J. P. Lodge, atmospheric chemist, Boulder, Colorado  Dr. Anthony R. Lupo, atmospheric scientist, Professor, University of Missouri at Columbia, reviewer/ contributing author, IPCC.  Dr. George E. McVehil, meteorologist, Englewood, Colorado  Dr. Helmut Metzner, Professor, Tubingen, Germany  Dr. Patrick J. Michaels, Professor and Director of the State Office of Climatology, University of Virginia; more than 50 research articles published in scientific journals; past President, American Association of State Climatologists; author, Sound and Fury: The Science and Politics of Global Warming (1992); reviewer/ contributing author, IPCC.  Sir William Mitchell, physicist, University of Oxford, U.K.  Dr. Asmunn Moene, former chief of Meteorology, Oslo, Norway.  Laim Nagle, energy/engineering specialist, Cornfield University, UK  Robert A. Neff, former U.S. Air Force meteorologist: member, AMS, AAAS.  Dr. William A. Nierenberg, Director Emeritus, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, La Jolla, California; Professor Emeritus of oceanography, University of California at San Diego; former member, Council of the U.S. National Academy of Science; former Chairman, National Research Council's Carbon Dioxide Assessment Committee; former member, U.S. EPA Global Climate Change Committee; former Assistant Secretary General of NATO for scientific affairs; former Chairman, National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmospheres.  Dr. William Porch, atmospheric physicist, Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico.  Dr. Harry Priem, Professor of geology, University of Utrecht  Dr. William E. Reifsnyder, Professor Emeritus of biometeorology, Yale University; elected Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science; former Chairman, National Academy of Science/National Research Council Committee on Climatology; AMS Award for Outstanding Achievement in Biometeorology.  Dr. Alexander Robertson, meteorologist, Adjunct Professor, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; author of more than 200 scientific and technical publications in biometeorology and climatology, forestry, forest ecology, urban environmental forestry, and engineering technology.  Dr. Thomas Schmidlin, CCM, Professor of meteorology/ climatology, Kent State University, Ohio; editor, Ohio Journal of Science, elected Fellow, Ohio Academy of Science; member, AMS.  Dr. Frederick Seitz, physicist, former President, Rockefeller University, former President, U.S. National Academy of Sciences; former member, President's Science Advisory Committee; recipient, U.S. National Medal of Science.  Dr. Gary D. Sharp, Executive Director, Center for Climate/Ocean Resources Study and the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Integrated Ocean Sciences; contributed to the initial development of the Climate Change Program of the National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration; investigated climate-related resource variabilities, sustainable development, and basic environmental climatology for the UN, World Bank, and USAID.  Dr. S. Fred Singer, atmospheric physicist; President, The Science & Environmental Policy Project; former Director, U.S. Weather Satellite Service; Professor Emeritus of environmental science, University of Virginia; former Chairman, federal panel investigating effects of the SST on stratospheric ozone; author or editor of 16 books, including Global Climate Change (1989) and Hot Talk, Cold Science: Global Warming's Unfinished Debate (1997).  Dr. A. F. Smith, chemical engineer (ret.), Jacksonville, Florida  Dr. Fred J. Starheim, Professor, Kent State University  Dr. Chauncey Starr, President Emeritus, Electric Power Research Institute, winner 1992 National Medal of Engineering  Dr. Robert E. Stevenson, Secretary General Emeritus, International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans, and a leading world authority on space oceanography; more than 100 research articles published in scientific journals; author of seven books; advisor to NASA, NATO, U.S. National Academy of Science, and the European Geophysical Society.  Dr. George Stroke, Professor, Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Munich, Germany  Dr. Heinz Sundermann, University of Vienna, Austria  Dr. George H. Sutton, Professor Emeritus, University of Hawaii  Dr. Arlen Super, meteorologist, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Lakewood, Colorado  Dr. Vladimir Svidersky, Professor, Sechenoc Institute, Moscow, Russia  Dr. M. Talwani, geophysicist, Rice University, Houston, Texas.  Dr. W. F. Tanner, Professor, Florida State University  Peter Arnold Toynbee, chemical engineer, F. Institute of Energy, London, England.  Dr. Christiaan Van Sumere, Professor, University of Gent, Belgium  Dr. Robin Vaugh, physicist, University of Dundee, UK  Dr. Robert C. Wentworth, geophysicist, Oakland, California, formerly with Lochheed Reseach Laboratory.  Dr. Robert C. Whitten, physicist, formerly with NASA.  Dr. Klaus Wyrtki, Professor Emeritus, University of Hawaii Sea Level Center      Ronald G Alderfer, PhD, Donald F Amend, PhD, David Anderson, MD, Donald N Anderson, PhD, Roger Baer, Alex Baskous, MD, Don Bassler, John Beitia, William M Bohon, James Boltz, John K Bowman, Mike Briscoe, Carrel Bryant, William Burgess, Roger C. Burggraf, Bonnie Carrington, Glen D Chambers, Lowell Crane, Michael Croft, Thomas R Delahunt, Edward M Dokoozian, PhD, Kathleen Douglas, Robert Dragnich, James Drew, PhD, Richard Dusenbery, PhD, William E Eberhardt, Jeffrey D Eckstein, John Egenolf, PhD, William James Ferrell, PhD, Jeffrey Foley, Will E. Godbey, Edward R Goldmann, Daniel C Graham, Lawrence G Griffin, Lenhart T Grothe, David B Harvey, Charles C Hawley, PhD, James Hendershot, Kurt R Hulteen, Lyndon Ibele, Timtohy K Irvin, Steven Jones, Donald Keill, Joseph M Killion, George F Klemmick, Professor Lance, Harold D Lee, Harry R Lee, Erwin Long, William E Long, PhD, Monte D Mabry, Robert Malouf, T R Marshall Jr, Jerzy Maselko, PhD, Jeff Michels, J U Miesse, M Miranda, William W Mitchell, PhD, Jesse Mohrbacher, John Mulligan, Erik Opstad, Walter T Phillips, Bruce Porter, Richard Reiley, Rydell Reints, Kermit Reppond, Donald R Rogers, MD, Allan Ross, Joe L Russell, George Schmidt, Lynn Schnell, Michael Schowen, Glenn E Shaw, PhD, Ernst Siemoneit, Michael Storer, James W Styler, Richard Swainbank, PhD, Tim Terry, Kevin Tomera, MD, Duane Vaagen, Dominique Van Nostrand, Ross Warner, Jean S Weingarten, Michael W Wheatall, Theron Wilson, Frank Wince,   H W Ahrenholz, Oscar R Ainsworth, PhD, Michael L Alexander, Robert Allen, MD, Ronald C Allison, MD, Berard J Anderson, PhD, John Anderson, PhD, Larry D Anderson, Russell S Andrews, PhD, Ann Askew, Larry Atkinson, Brooks H Baker III, Robert Baker, James Baltar, Alan A. Barksdale, Richard Barnes, Kenneth A Barrett, Sidney D Beckett, PhD, Arthur B Reindorff, PhD, M Bersch, PhD, Raymond Bishop, Edward Blair, Jonathan Boland, Theodore Bos, PhD, Wm D Boyer, PhD, William C Bradford, Bradley A Brasfield, John F Brass, Claude E Breed, James M Brown, PhD, Robt A Brown, PhD, Walter Brush, Donald F Burchfield, PhD, Kim A Burke, Kevin Burrows, Eddie Burt, PhD, Michael A Butts, Arnold E Carden, PhD, Charles R Christensen, PhD, Otis M Clarke Jr, Stan G Clayton, William M Clement, PhD, Jack Cleveland, David N Clum, Ty Cobb, W Frank Cobb Jr, W A Cochran, Jr, Ernst M Cohn, Robt B Cook, PhD, Clifton Couey, Sylvere Coussement, PhD, Delmar N Crowe Jr, Joseph A Cunningham, MD, J F Cuttino, PhD, Thomas P Czepiel, PhD, Robert S Dahlin, PhD, Thomas W Daniel, Julian Davidson, PhD, Donald E Davis, PhD, Jimmy D Davis, Michael Day, PhD, David L Dean, PhD, Warren D Dickinson, Wenju Dong, PhD, Thomas P Dooley, PhD, Gilbert Douglas Jr, MD, James A Downey III, Don A. Sibley, PhD, James L Dubard, PhD, Zbigniew Dybczak, PhD, George R Edlin, PhD, Tricia Elgavish, Gabriel Elgavish, PhD, Rotem Elgavish, Rush E Elkins, PhD, Jesse G Ellard, Howard C Elliott, PhD, Arthur Ellis, David Elrod, PhD, Leonard E Ensminger, PhD, Robert D Erhardt Jr, Ken Fann, GL Fish, Julius Fleming, Wm F Foreman, Mark Fowler, R D Francis, PhD, Ronald G Garmon, PhD, William F Garvin, Gautier, PhD, W W Gebhart, Gerard Allen Geppert, Marvin Glass, Mark W. Glenn, Alexander Goforth, Bruce W Gray, PhD, George H Griswold, Ed Grygiel, A M Guarino, PhD, Leroy M Hair, Ben Hajek, PhD, James W. Handley, Gregorg Harris, Douglas Hayes, PhD, James L Hayes, Charles D Haynes, PhD, James E Heath, DVM, Bobby Helms, Ron Helms, Robert L Henderson, John B Hendricks, PhD, William Henry Jr, William D Herrin, Mitch Higginbotham, B Hinton, PhD, William A Hollerman, Mac Holmes, PhD, David Hood, James N Hool, PhD, Stephen K Howard, James W Hugg, PhD, Chin- Chen Hung, PhD, Bob Hunter, Herbert Hunter, PhD, Ray Hunter, Donald J Ifshin, John D Irwin, PhD, Holger M Jaenisch, PhD, Homer C Jamison, PhD, Donald Janes, Kenneth Jarrell, Wm W Jemison Jr, Robt G Jernigan, Danny Johnson, Frank J Johnson, Frederic A Johnson, PhD, Alfred Leon Joly, David A Kallin, James M Kampfer, Robert D Keenum, Paul King, James E Kingsbury, D A Klip, PhD, James Knight, Philip Lamoreaux, John H Lary Jr, MD, Lloyd H Lauerman, PhD, David Laven, William F Lawrence, N T Lee, John Leffler, George R Lewis, Baw- Lin Liu, PhD, Allen Long, MD, James M Long, MD, Joyce M Long, Walter Long, MD, John Lozowski, MD, Linda C Lucas, MD, Wm R Lucas, PhD, Brian Luckianow, Robert A Macrae, I R Manasco, Baldev S Mangat, PhD, Sven Peter Mannsfield, PhD, Matthew Mariano, PhD, Carter Matthews, Paul R Matthews, Charles R Mauldin, David Mays, PhD, Van A Mc Auley, George McCullars, MD, PhD, Randall McDaniel, Wm B McKnight, PhD, Curtis J McMinn, Thomas E McNider, Jasper L McPhail, MD, Joseph P Michalski, MD, J G Micklow, PhD, Randall Mills, Larry S Monroe, PhD, Rickie D Moon, George S Morefield, Perry Morton, PhD, Richard L Mullen, Nelson A Perry, Grady Nichols, PhD, Pat Odom, PhD, JF Olivier, Edward James Parish, PhD, Mitchell Pate, W Quinn Paulk, MD, Nelson Perry, Kenneth F Persin, Tom Pfitzer, David K Phillips, Sean Piecuch, Charles Pike, Peter Pincura, Michael Piznar, Char W Prince, PhD, Ronald O Rahn, PhD, Joseph L Randall, PhD, James Ready, MD, Jerry Reaves, Robert Ware Reynolds, PhD, Richard G Rhoades, PhD, Wm Eugene Ribelin, PhD, Dennis Rich, George Richmond, Logan R Ritchie, Jr, Alfred Ritter, PhD, Ronnie L Rivers, PhD, Harold V Rodriguez, PhD, Robert G Rosser, MD, John S Runge, Leon Y Sadler III, PhD, James Sanford, Ted L Sartain, Robert Schaal, Carl Schauble, PhD, William G Setser, Raymond F Sewell, PhD, Raymond L Shepherd, PhD, Charles Shivers, PhD, Harold W Skalka, MD, Daniel Skinner, MD, Peter J Slater, PhD, David A Smith, Michael Sosebee, D Paul Sparks Jr, Michael P Spector, PhD, Philip Speir, Lethenual Stanfield, Kenny Stone, Dorothy Stover, Jane Sulser, Michael Susko, PhD, J M Tagg, Thomas F Talbot, PhD, Edward Teitel, MD, Julian E Thomas, PhD, James Thompson, Zack Thompson, Eugene D Tidwell, James Vacik, PhD, John H Van Aken, Stanley S. Vasa, Otha H Vaughan Jr, William W Vaughan, PhD, Wm Walton Vaughan, PhD, Thomas M Veazey, PhD, William Voigt, William W Walker, PhD, John Wallace, Edward H Ward, PhD, Raymond Watson, PhD, Donald C Wehner, Lawrence P Weinberger, PhD, William Wells, Hans- Helmut Werner, PhD, Leon O Wilken, PhD, Gregory Windham, MD, Bruce Wise, Forrest A Younker,   Katherine B. Featherstone,   Ralph Sherman Becker, PhD, Ford Benham, Maxmimilian H Bergendahl, PhD, John J Berky, PhD, C Dudley Blancke, Robert E Bowling, PhD, Bryan Burnett, James Caldwell, Raymond Cammack, PhD, Frank Chimenti, PhD, Thomas Clark, Jeffrey M Collar, Frederick C Collins, PhD, John Commerford, PhD, Kenneth C Corkum, PhD, Kenneth L Duck, James Dunlop, Roscoe A Dykman, PhD, Don Edington, Douglas A Rees- Evans, Kevin G Fitzgerald, Kenneth French, PhD, Ben Hager, John L Hartman, PhD, Isobel J. Hickory, Robert F Hill, Ed Hiserodt, Ed Hockaday, Charles Hoke, Ernest H Hume, Charles Jones, PhD, Edward T Jones, Matti Kaaranakari, Ernest G Kavanaugh, John W King, PhD, Tommy C. Kinnaird, Charles H. Korns, PhD, Sterling S Lacy, Wei Li, Dennis D Longhorn, M David Luneau, Maddox, Mary Marks-Wood, Richard H Martin, MD, Clark W McCarty, PhD, Thomas H McWilliams, John Mellgren, Mesko, Jeanne Murphy, MD, X J Musacchia, PhD, Danny Naegle, Charles A Nelson, PhD, Lowell E Netherton, PhD, Kelly H Oliver, PhD, John Pauly, PhD, Larry Polk, David Riggs, J Herbert Riley, John Roberts, Albert Robinson, PhD, James C Rothwell, Wm Marion Sandefur, PhD, Boris Schein, PhD, Craig Shackelford, B Sherrill, Wayne Smith, MD, Mike Strub, PhD, G Russell Sutherland, John Talpas, Aubrey Tennille, PhD, Wm W Trigg, PhD, Patrick D Walker, MD, J R Weaver, Donel R Whiting, James L. Word, MD,   Richard E. Ackermann, Brook Adams, Larry D Agenbroad, PhD, Richard Ahern, Edward Ahrens, Mark W Albertsen, A Amr, PhD, Sal A Anazalone, Arthur G Anderson, PhD, James Andrew, John Anthes, PhD, Bruce W Apland, Ara Arabyan, PhD, William Archer, Walt Armer, Owen Ashworth, Mike Assad, Adel Assaf, D Austin, P E, Canan Avela, Dirk Den - Baars, PhD, Andrew T Bahill, PhD, David Bailey, J Baker, PhD, Robert Balling, PhD, Roy J Barker, PhD, John E Barkley, PhD, R C Barnett, Charles J Baroczy, Lawrence D Barr, Rosemary Barr, Mrs Carol A Barrett, Edward J Barvick, MD, John W Bass, MD, Charles C Bates, PhD, Charles C Bates, PhD, Steve Baumann, Frank Bazzanella, Clarence Becker, PhD, RS Bennett, Charles M Bentzen, Arne Bergh, PhD, Kenneth Bernstein, James W Berry, PhD, Peter Bianchetta, William S Bickel, PhD, James R. Black, Bruce Bollermann, Kelsey Boltz, Michael Boxer, MD, John D Brack, J Tj Braddock, John Bradley, MD, W Newman Bradshaw, PhD, Harold Brennan, James Briscoe, D Broderick, PhD, Fred B Brost, Apryl Brown, Richard E Brown, MD, S Kent Brown, MD, Stephen Brown, MD, Stephen R Brown, Will Brown, Gerald R Brunskill, Thomas Bryant, Daivd Burdeaux, Michel S Burns, Warren F Buxton, PhD, Ken Byrne, Roger Cahill, DVM, J B Caird, Robert Campana, John S Campbell, Robert E Campbell, Fernando Campos, MD, M Canham, Craig Cantoni, AE Carden, PhD, Bryan J Carder Jr, MD, E N Carlier, Charles Carrell, Bruce W Cavender, Robert T Chapman, Charles H Chase, Gerald Chicoine, Lincoln Chin, PhD, James Civis, James G Clark, PhD, James W Clark, John W Clayton, PhD, Fran Van Cleave, PhD, La Var Clegg, Neil C Clements, MD, Jeffrey Clevenger, Elmer Lendell Cockrum, PhD, Theodore Cogut, Donald Coleman, Joel Colley, MD, Thomas Comi, PhD, Gary Conley, Paul Consroe, PhD, George W Cook, Glenn C Cook, MD, Shirl E Cook, Jane Cooper, Jeff Cooper, Russell Corn, Don Corona, Brian Cox, Anne E Cress, PhD, Richard E Cribbs, Donald E Crowell, Gabriel T Csanady, PhD, David C Cunningham, Joseph Cusack, William Daffron, Charles H Daggs, Clark J. Daggs, James Dancho, MD, Jerry Danni, James Deatherage, William Devereux, Jerome P Dorlac, Harold J Downey, Jean Draper, William M Dresher, PhD, Joseph Dufresne, Marie Dugan, Raymond J Dugandzic, Jonathan Duhamel, James A Durham, John Eastlick, Robert J Eggert Sr, Philip A Emery, T Enloe, Lawson Entwistle, A Gordon Everett, PhD, Paul C Fairchild, Steve Fanto, MD, Robert H Fariss, PhD, Robert P Farrell, John Fenger, MD, Richmond Fenn, James Fink, PhD, William Gary Fisher, Leon W Florschuetz, PhD, Ron Francken, Arthur A Frost, PhD, Robert Furman, MD, Floyd Fusselman, Clyde H Garman, P R Garver, MD, Roy L Gealer, PhD, Barbara Gephart, R. Gervais, MD, Robt P Gervais, MD, Giclas, PhD, Donald Gill, Paul Gilmour, PhD, Stephen Glacy, MD, Julie Glanan, Robert L Glick, PhD, Randy Golding, PhD, Pierce Goodman, PhD, Edward J Goovier, Jr, Wayne D Gould, Alphonse P Granatek, Harold Greenfield, PhD, William M Greenslade, James Greenwood, George A Gries, PhD, Ray Griswold, Joseph F Gross, PhD, C. J. Gudim, Charles W Gullikson, PhD, Earl S Gurley, Richard E Guth, David B Hackman, PhD, Anton F Haffer, Ronald J Hager, Jr, William Hahman, Francis A Hale, Richard C Hall, L Ardis Hamer, Donald F Hammer, Jeff Hammond, Raymond E Hammond, Robert E Hannay, Edward E Hanley, III, Joann B Hansen, PhD, Joann B Hansen, PhD, Ellen Harris, PhD, Hermen Hartjens, L. Hatzilambrou, PhD, John W Hawley, John Heermans, Walter Heinrichs, Albert Heitzmann, Robert Hendricks, Edward P Herman, MD, Paul Hermann, Tom Hessier, Robin Hickson, Douglas Hilchie, PhD, Jeffrey H Hill, MD, Robert Hill, Daniel L Hirsch, J Brent Hiskey, PhD, Alfred Joseph Hoehn, PhD, Linda Hoge, R Norman Holme, G E Holmes, Michael E Holtferich, Ashley House, Wm B Hubbard, PhD, Richard O Huch, Robert P Hughes, Robert Humphrey, Kenneth Hunt, Peter P Hydrean, PhD, Sherwood B Idso, PhD, G W Irvin, Dan Isbell, Rosemary Isbell, Theodore Izzo, K A Jackson, PhD, Douglas E. James, Thomas Jancic, Kevin L Jardine, John Jarvis, MD, Robert Jensen, Ralph Jewett, David C Johnson, MD, George Johnson, David Johnston, Richard C Jordan, PhD, Thomas L Jjossem, James Juday, George Jude, Eric Jungermann, PhD, Richard S Juvet, PhD, Ronald R Kamyniski, Justin M Kapla, Francis W Karasek, PhD, Peter P Kay, MD, Keith Keating, MD, Kenneth L Keating, PhD, James L Kelly, Shawn Kendall, Robert Kendrick, William Kennedy, PhD, Harold D Kessler, Clement J Kevane, PhD, Paul Keyser, William R Kilpatrick, MD, Gera King, Kingery, PhD, Roy Kiser, Neil R Kitchen, MD, Wiliam Kneebone, PhD, Gregory D Knowlton, PhD, Leonard Koch, Robert Koons, William Kopp, Henry G Kreis, Gerald E Kron, PhD, Eddwin H Krug, Jerry Krumwiedre, David Krus, PhD, W Kubitsihel, MD, David Kuck, John Kuhn, Gary W Lachappelle, W C Lacy, PhD, Charles Lagergren, James L Lake, Dale Langmade, Donn Larson, The Leakes, Steve Leeland, Richard B Leisure, Virgil Lessels, Dave Levison, PhD, Seymour Levy, Ruth Leyse, PhD, Harvey M Lifsey, PhD, James A Liggett', PhD, Phil Lille, William G Lipke, PhD, J Lockwood, PhD, Mark Logan, MD, Keith R Long, PhD, David Lorenz, MD, Robert F Lorenzen, MD, Robert B Ludden, Mark Ludwig, PhD, Ronald Lukas, PhD, Robert Lundin, PhD, James H. Lundy, Tom Maloney, Gary Maluf, GS Mander, Charles E Mandeville, Paul A Manera, PhD, Donald Mapes, Wm Michael Marsh, Noah W. Martin, Thomas W Mathewson, Harrison Matson, J A McAllister, Terry McArthur, Ron McCalister, PhD, Wlter E McCulloch, Jr, Paul McElligott, PhD, J McGaha, Gregory E McKelvey, Bruce Mckinstry, Ray McPherson, John E McVaugh, Wellington Meier, PhD, Norman A Meinhardt, PhD, Gary Melvin, Ken Melybe, Charles R Merigold, Robert Metz, Robert J Meyers Sr, Marcus Middleton, Glenn H Miller, PhD, M Miller, Mark A Miller, Frank Milliken, James Moeller, Robert Mollenhauer, Robert Montague, Donald W Moon, Tom Mooney, MD, Jack W Moore, Ramon Morano, Pamela Morford, MD, James Mortrude, John R Mosley, PhD, Robert Z Muggli, PhD, Fenoi Murdock, PhD, Paul Musgrove, Robt E Nabours, PhD, Paula Nadell, MD, Raymond Naumann, MD, John Neff, George Nelms, PhD, Douglas T Nelson, Frank Nelson, David R Nielsen, MD, Ronald A Nielsen, DDS, Nyal Niemuth, Aundra Nix, Robert Nixon, Charles Nolan, Van Nyman, David Oakeson, Arthur C Ohagan, Ernest L Ohle, PhD, Ernie Ohle, PhD, John F Olsen, Stephen Orcutt, Jane M Orient, MD, Herbert Osborn, PhD, Stephen S Osder, Charles Osterberg, PhD, Karl Palmberg, MD, Lloyd M Parks, PhD, R Pearce, Doug Pease, Darlene A Periconi-Balling, Steve Perkins, Donald M Perry, MD, Thomas Phillips, Anthony Pietsch, Fred Pitman, John A Plaisted, Wallace Platt, Kent Pomeroy, MD, H K Poole, Jim Powell, Arnold Warburton Pratt, MD, Buchard Pruett, MD, Tom Pyzdek, David Rabb, Kenneth Rachocki, PhD, Donal M Ragan, PhD, James B Rasmussen, Steven Rauzi, Kyle Rawlings, PhD, Paul R Reay, MD, K Redig, Emmett Van Reed, Terry A Reeves, MD, Thomas R Rehm, PhD, John Reichenbach, C H Reynolds, Harvey Rhodes, Terry Rice, Warren Rice, PhD, Marilyn Riddel, PhD, Terry Ritzel, Chris Robertson, James L Robrock, MD, TC Roche, Jr, M V Rock, MD, Ralph A Rockow, Rich Rodgers, Oliver Roholt, PhD, John H Rohrbaugh, PhD, Dwayne Rohweder, PhD, Richard Rowe, MD, Verald K Row, David D Rubis, PhD, Thomas Rudy, Robert Reuss, John A Rupley, PhD, George Ryberg, Paul A Rydin, Robert E. Samuelson, PhD, Katherine Sanchez, John Sawyer, MD, Thomas E Scartaccini, Harvey Schau, PhD, Joseph Scherzer, MD, Milton J Schick, Justin O Schmidt, PhD, Conrad Schneiker, Melvin Schonhorst, PhD, George Schuler, R. David Schurian, Theodore T Scolman, PhD, Chuck See, Hal Sefton, Mark N Seidel, PhD, Harner Selvidge, PhD, Robert Shantz, PhD, Stevan M Shaw, PhD, P Sherry, Kenneth L Shook, Vernon Simonson, Ernesto Sirvas, W Roy Slaunwhite, PhD, Bennett Sloan, Alice Smith, Delmont K Smith, PhD, John A Soscia, MD, David M Spatz, PhD, Daniel Spencer, Earl Spieles, John Wm Stafford, Daniel Stamps, Henry Stevens, Lester H Steward, MD, Robert J. Stuart, William O Sumner, Soren Suver, Gordon A Swann, PhD, Robert E Sweet, Monte Swetnam, Charles M Tarr, Michael Teodori, MD, Marvin Teutsch, C Brent Theurer, PhD, Glenn Thompson, PhD, David Thornton, John R Thorson, Dennis L Thrasher, MD, Jacob Timmers, Spencer R Titley, PhD, Randall K Tozer, MD, George E Travis, Neil True, Roy A Tucker, Lee A Tune Jr, Dennis Turner, John L Uhrie, PhD, Bobby L. Ulich, PhD, Willard Van Asdall, PhD, C Kenneth Vance, Richard Vanriper, James Vogler, PhD, Peter Vokac, David Wahl, PhD, Robert A Walish, Joe A Walker, Woodville J Walker, Kenneth A Wallace, Kevin Walsh, Meredith Warner, Roger Waterman, Wm L Wearly, Orrin J Webster, PhD, Gene Wegner, PhD, Patrick L Weidner, Eileen G Weisbard, Marvin Weisbard, MD, Homer W Welch, PhD, Paul J Weser, R. M. Westerfield, Donald White, Dave Wick, Gordon Wieduwilt, W Gordon Wieduwilt, John Wilburn, George Wilkinson, Clark William, Brandon Williams, Clifford L Willis, PhD, Donald W Wine, David Wing, PhD, John B Winters, George K Wittenberg, PhD, Gerald Woehick, George Wolfe, David J Woods, Glenn Wright, PhD, C M Wurth, James A Yanez, James Yingst, Robert A Young, PhD, Roy V Zeagler Jr, Werner Zinn,   Earl Aagaard, PhD, Ursula K Abbott, PhD, Lee Actor, George B Adams, PhD, Wm J Adams, Barnet R Adelman, Jack Agan, Sven Agerbek, Roy Ahalt, John J Aiello, Joseph P. Aiello, MD, E Bud Ainsworth, Wayne Henry Akeson, MD, John Alai, Edward Albert, Russell J Alameda Jr, Alex F Alessandrini, Ira Alexander, R Allahyari, PhD, Robert C Allen, John J Allport, PhD, David Altman, PhD, Antonio Alvarez, David Saint Amand, Marvin E Ament, Pierre Saiut- Amond, PhD, G Robt D Andborn, Torben B Andersen, PhD, Wilford H Andersen, PhD, Anderson, Chris Anderson, James Anderson, Kerry Anderson, Orson L Anderson, PhD, Robert E Anderson, Thomas Anderson, Warren R Anderson, Al Andrews, PhD, Alfredo Ang, PhD, Claude B Anger, Gregory Antal, John Arcadi, MD, Philip Archibald, Robert Archibald, Richard Armentrout, PhD, Baxter H Armstrong, PhD, Robert Emile Arnal, PhD, Charles Arney, Rosemary Arnold, Max Artusy, PhD, Edward V Ashburn, Holt Ashley, PhD, George Aster, Robert D Athey Jr, PhD, Robert Douglas Athey, PhD, Leonardo D Attorre, Boris Auksmann, PhD, Henry S Aurand, Philip Avery, Kenneth Avicola, T G Ayres, William J Barbaris, MD, Adrian D Baer, PhD, Benton Bailey, Edmund Bailey, MD, Ronald M Bailey, Don Robert Baker, PhD, Jim Baker, Lee Baker, Mary Ann Baker, PhD, W J Baker, Orville Balcom, Ransom Baldwin, PhD, Barrett S Baldwin, PhD, David Baldwin, George Balella, MD, George Ball, Glenn A Ballard, Martin Balow, John S Baltutis, Herman Wm Bandel, PhD, Cezar Banks, Ronald E Banuk, Ronald Barany, PhD, James Barcikowski, Morrie Jay Barembaum, Francis J Barker, Horace A Barker, PhD, William B. 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Malgeri, Hans Weil- Malherbe, PhD, Jim Gorden Malik, PhD, Joseph D Mallory, MD, Kenneth Lon Maloney, PhD, George Maloof, MD, George Maloof, MD, Neil A Malpiede, Howard Mancha, Kent M Mangold, C David Mann, George Mann, Robert W. Monnon, PhD, Wm H Mannon, James Mansdorfer, Greayer Mansfield-Jones, PhD, A Marasco, Mark Marchese, Michael Marchese, DDS, Carol S Marcus, MD, PhD, E Marg, PhD, Brian Maridon, Michael J Marinak, Bill Marler, Wilbur J Marner, PhD, Patrick M Maroney, David Marquis, PhD, Marilyn Marquis, PhD, Henry L Marschall, Sullivan Marsden, PhD, Brian Marshall, David E Marshburn, MD, Richard G Martella, Emil L Martin, John Martin, L A Martin, Richard E Martin, Stanley Martin, Ernest A Martinelli, PhD, Fredrick W. Marx, MD, Joseph Maserjian, PhD, R Kemp Massengil, MD, Paul Masser, PhD, Dexter J Massoletti, Theresa Masters, Dr Edgar A. Mastin, PhD, Ronald F Mathis, PhD, Gene Matranga, Edward H Mayer, David F Maynard, PhD, G Mazis, William Mccarter, Chester M McCloskey, PhD, R J McClure, William Owen McClure, PhD, Billy M McCormac, PhD, Philip Thomas McCormick, PhD, Ray S McCoy, Louis McCreight, James McCrumb, Edward McDowell, PhD, W C McFradden, Charles G McGaughey, Malcolm McGawn, J F McGouldrick, Lawrence Mchargue, PhD, Vernon J. McKale, Charles G McKay, Mary C McKay, William D McKee, PhD, Donald W McKelvey, Donald J McKenzie, Doug McKinzie, Joe McKenzie, Don McKeon, Mary Polly McKinstry, MD, Jerry McKnight, Stephen McKown, Charles A McLean, Gregory R McNeill, Michael J McNutt, PhD, Daniel E Mcpherson Jr, L D Mcqueen, PhD, John C Mctaggart, Gerard McVicker, Homer N Mead, Robert C Meaders, Richard A Meador, Susan L Mearns, PhD, Robert Medearis, M G Mefferd, Merlin Meisner, Robert F Rederick Meldau, Rodney Melgard, Stanley C Mellin, Marvin E Melton, Xian-Qin Meng, MD, Steven Menkus, Alan C Merchant, MD, Leo Mercy, Lawrence Meriage, PhD, John Lafayette Merriam, Marshal F Merriam, PhD, George Merrick, Ronald Merrill, PhD, William Merrill, Seymour Merrin, PhD, Ross A Merritt, Grant W Metzger, Harold Meyer, Matthew D Meyer, R D Meyer, Rudolf X Meyer, PhD, Charles J Meyers Jr, Richard E Meyers, Gerald J Miatech, PhD, E Don Michael, Robert Michael, Lawrence A Michel, Lloyd R Michels, PhD, Michael A Michelson, Duane S Mikkelsen, PhD, Ral   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 14:24, 2. Emilio (Thai) Tus comentarios son muy cortos, no me han entrado ni el 5% de los firmantes. FIRMANTES NEGANDO EL CALENTAMIENTO.   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 15:08, 3. ... ¿Y las publicaciones que han pasado por "Peer Review"? ¿datos empíricos en los que se basan? ¿sabes diferenciar entre un "argumento científico" y el "argumento que utiliza un científico"?    Fráncamente, que HAY un calentamiento global es INDISCUTIBLE bajo los parámetros de estudio.    Por cierto ¿que   Pierre Bourdieu está en contra de que haya calentamiento global alguien que ha estado del lado de los ecologistas desde siempre?, a parte que + del 50% de los que pones son científicos sociales (con lo cuál dudosa competencia para poder hablar de un fenómeno de las ciencias empíricas como autoridad) la otra mitad de los que quedan hace años que están muertos (por tanto dudo de que puedan decir nada sobre los datos de los últimos años) y que la otra mitad por lo que he leído de ellos dudo mucho que estén negando el calentamiento global. Por lo tanto fráncamente, el listado me falla por todos lados.    Artículos publicados en revistas indexadas bajo el Peer Review en los últimos 4 ó 5 años, a ver, por favor, algo de rigor científico, no un listado que te has sacado de la manga.   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 15:16, 4. ... Por otro lado, ya me extrañaba que algunos de los autores negaran el calentamiento global, el listado no es de quienes niegan el calentamiento global sino de los firmantes del del Heidelberg Appeal que apela contra la cientificifobia o la sustitción del titular o del alarmismo por la ciencia racional.    Ninguno de ellos niega el calentamiento global, y afirman que la We therefore consider that scientific ecology is no more than extension of this continual progress toward the improved life of future generations. Por lo tanto que la ciencia "ecológica" no es más que una continuación de la ciencia actual.    Repito, estos firmantes NO NIEGAN EL CALENTAMIENTO GLOBAL afirmar ello por secundar el Heidelberg appeal es una burda manipulación del propio espíritu del texto.    Fráncamente, HOY NO HAY CIENTÍFICO QUE NIEGUE Y PUEDA MANTENERLO QUE EL PLANETA SE ESTÁ CALENTANDO.    Repito, el Heidelberg appeal no va por ahí, es un texto de 1992 para alertar de la cientificofobia, del alarmismo, de no tomar decisiones en base a datos irrelevantes.    Y hoy en dia sus firmantes afirman que el planeta se calienta.    Así que por favor, falsedades las justas.   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 15:20, 5. ... Tus comentarios son muy cortos, no me han entrado ni el 5% de los firmantes. FIRMANTES NEGANDO EL CALENTAMIENTO.    Falso, revísate el Heidelberg appeal que és lo que firman, y antes de poner el listado de 4000 personas, podrías haber puesto el texto, antes de hacernos creer lo que no es más que una burda mentira. ¿No se te cae la cara de verguenza de querer engañar de esa manera? ¿de utilizar el nombre de gente que se ha posicionado con el movimiento ecologista de forma seria para urdir un argumento falaz sobre que no existe el calentamiento global?    Tanta mentira me asquea Thai, y demuestra lo que moralmente están dispuesto algunos para llevar el ascua a su hoguera.    Es tal corrupción del Heidelberg appeal que me causa repugnancia tu sola mención a ello. ¿Cómo puedes utilizar un texto que ha sido preparado para apelar al racionalismo y a los datos empíricos para negar algo que está bajo el método científico que el Heidelberg appeal demanda y cuyos firmantes secundan?. Es como utilizar la carta de derechos humanos, sin ponerlos, y decir que todos los firmantes justifican las ejecuciones sumarísimas.    Repugnante, Thai, repugnante, tu comportamiento.   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 15-06-2006 15:26, 6. ... Para más INRI, de los 72 nóbeles firmantes también han firmado el "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity," que es cláramente un alegato ecologista. Fráncamente la falta de honestidad de los que alegan en contra del calentamiento global es tal que comienza a ser más que repulsivo.    World Scienctist Warning to Humanity   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 16-06-2006 22:25, 7. Gerard Yo no entro en polémicas. Joder Jose como dominas el tema, das miedo. La verdad es que lo que uno aprende leyendo socialdemocracia.org es la ostia en patinete. Bueno como el foro que lo leéis no coincidís con la gente con la que fantasmeo, decir que utilizo datos y artículos, en este caso rollo ecologista, para dármelas con la audiencia.(Oye y ¡funciona!)   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 06-11-2006 20:52, 8. Rostro Sólo aquellos suficientemente ignorantes son capaces de negar una cosa taxativamente. Va por ti, Thai.    Si tuvieses la más mínima idea de lo frágil que es el equilibrio atmosférico te meterías tus palabras en el culo. Estoy trabajando en un proyecto de investigación para elaborar un modelo (bastante simple, sólo para salir del paso) para el doctorado y me he quedado alucinado de lo que voy descubriendo. Qué dificil es hacer un modelo que funcione, el trabajo que lleva, y tú te limitas en tu inconmensurable inconsciencia a poner un montón de nombres que encontraste en una web para avalar lo que a ti te da la gana.    Si no tienes nada instructivo que poner, detén tus dedos antes de tocas el teclado, que para hacer el ridículo ya están los políticos.    Saludos   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Invitado, on 12-02-2007 19:46, 9. ... es horrible la revista debe tener mas cosas   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario... Escrito por Ecologista, on 21-04-2007 11:48, 10. ... Los que niegan el cambio climático deberán responder delante de las futuras generaciones por las consecuencias que sus mentiras pueden tener en su futuro. Que miren a sus hijos y nietos y les expliquen que tal vez el futuro que les quieren legar sea el de un desastre ambiental y humano.   » Notificar este comentario al administrador » Responder a éste comentario...

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Escrito por Jose Rodriguez

martes, 13 de junio de 2006

 

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